Fabricated Identity
How has Norse Historiography Shaped Scandinavian National Identity?
H. Frewin
“Myth is an aesthetic device for bringing the imaginary but powerful world of preternatural forces into a manageable collaboration with the objective facts of life in such a way as to excite a sense of reality amenable to both the unconscious passions and the conscious mind.” (Richard Chase[1])
In Scandinavia, the profound influence of Viking history, Nordic mythology and Scandinavian icons have repercussions on the economic, political, and most notably cultural spheres of society. The primary source expediting Viking myth and wisdom into Scandinavian society are the Eddas2 and sagas. Alongside modern translations and interpretations, the influence of Nordic mythology and history has shaped national characteristics and psychological traits, an evident distinction between each Nordic countries’ identity, and sparked artistic, literacy and political movements. The profound appropriation of the Scandinavian past has decisively led to highly nationalistic, yet inauthentic ideologies, presenting historians with the challenge of revitalising historical truth within the Nordic nations.
The origins of Nordic appropriation can be traced back to the very beginning of Scandinavian historiography; Snorri Sturluson’s king’s sagas. Despite fabricated modern interpretations being the most influential sources in appropriating Nordic history, the social and political context in which the sagas were produced have an outstanding effect on the objectivity and presentation of factual history. Most famously, his texts Heimskringla[2] and Morkinskinna[3] have been studied by modern historians as to whether they were cautionary tools of propaganda, and hence, are they sources of objective history? Snorri’s intentions when writing is unclear, but many historians have tried to attribute purpose through interrogating the context of which they were written. Fjaddal believes Heimskringla is a tool of propaganda, a warning to Snorri’s Icelandic audience to stay clear of the Norwegian royal house. Andersson and Bagge accentuate that Snorri holds no hostility or animosity towards Norwegian royals in his writing, but the increased tension in 1220 between Iceland and Norway over trade attributes to a general dislike of royal power. Although Heimskringla seems highly objective and always avoids bias and propaganda, Snorri chooses evidence to an extent of propaganda. He provides descriptions of four Norwegian kings who influenced or attempted to influence Icelandic affairs, not stating any political affiliation with the facts but letting the facts speak for themselves. Snorri chooses the kings that would preach a negative attitude of Norwegian kingship to the Icelandic public. Although the history is highly objective in its factual presentation, Snorri subjectively chooses information that can be interpreted as propaganda. Furthermore, this notion is backed by modern historian Andersson, as he outlines how the text Morkinskinna, which was written during the trade war, clearly outlines disproval of current Norwegian kings. At the heart of Nordic history are the Eddas and sagas, crucial texts that heavily influence the modern identities of Scandinavian countries. Despite a lot of clear-cut objectivity, it is apparent that many concepts of these texts are unable to escape the author’s personal and contextual ideals, therefore deeming them illegitimate sources of reliable nation building.
The beginning of the appropriation of the Nordic past into the lives and identities of the Scandinavian peoples can be traced to the Nordic Renaissance of the 18th century. In a cultural climate dominated by Graeco-Roman[4] Neoclassicism[5], the blood, gore and pillaging of defiant Vikings and vengeful gods and goddesses did not align with Classical standards that dominated European art academies. The earliest branches of Romanticism[6], the emerging taste of the “sublime” and aesthetic pleasure fitted perfectly with the stories of Vikings from Eddic myth. The Eddas and sagas sparked a critique of hegemonic Classical models and satisfied the desire for fresh, authentic alternatives through Old Norse poetry. Young Danish poet Johannes Ewald mounted a rise in nationalistic ideals within Scandinavia, with his second complete work Balders Dod[7] (The Death of Balder, 1775). This nationalistic piece had immediate influence, as it sparked resistance in Danish society against the German influences on Danish culture. The popularity of Balders Dod had an undeniable impact on the visual arts; Neoclassical sculptor Johannes Wiedewelt made a series of 72 sketches based on the tale of Balder. The revival of Old Norse texts sparked a literary movement idolising the Nordic past, shaping identities and beliefs in accordance with the ideals personified in the interpretations.
The Nordic Renaissance further sparked the unification of primary Scandinavian countries Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. As a result of Old Norse texts and its growing nationalistic significance, the awareness of shared culture and historical origins grounded Scandinavians in the idea that they formed a single, authentic community during pagan times; “speaking one language and practising one religion.” Danish historian Frederik Sneedorff[8] summarised this widely accepted notion in one of his lectures dating 1797:
The first inhabitants of the north came from Asia… these inhabitants were two of a kind, Finns and Jotnar or Goths; from these Goths[9]the Danes, Norwegians and Swedes descended… An older Odin… was worshipped by his people, from whom our forefathers descended, like a god; it is him the Eddas speak of, and whose worship became common in the north.
It was the revitalisation of the importance of Nordic myth that sparked the reunification of Scandinavian nations under one people and a common ancestry. The repercussions of this were most notably in the geopolitical sphere, where the threat of the growing political power of both Russia[10] and Germany[11] called for the swift political unification of the three Nordic nations. Furthermore, the establishment of the Skaninaviske Littertuur-Selskab (Scandinavian Literary Society) four years later reflects an awareness of a common Scandinavian identity, a willingness to build on this shared identity as well as an acknowledgment of the importance of Norse myth and history in modern northern identity and society.
Furthermore, literary movements appropriate history to create a national identity, which is especially evident at times of political crisis. In the early 1800s, an academic paradigm shift occurred that has been termed the “nationalisation of knowledge”: an increase in the importance of national consciousness, national rivalry and nation-building gained through knowledge. During the devastating Napoleonicwars[12], Sweden ceded Finland to Russia (1809) and Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden[13] (1814), both cessions having harsh political repercussions and causing a severe identity crisis across nations. However, mythology and its newfound reliance as the soul medium expressing a nation’s identity meant the cure was sought in folk culture, Nordic mythology and especially the glorious past. FinnurMagnusson, through his translation of the Eddas, promulgated that the field of study that is mythology is not exclusively academic, but a product for cultural recycling and reproduction. This was further acknowledged by JoepLeerssen, accentuating the profound impact mythology has on modern identity. The form mythology took that assisted in identity building and resurrection was most notably in the Skaldic verse of the Eddas and sagas, but also in plays, poetry and arts. Contextually, alongside the Napoleonic wars was the cession of Finland[14] (1811). The influential plays of the Dane Adam Oehlenshlager across Scandinavia sparked the establishment of the Geatish Society, which promoted the use of the Eddas and sagas to restore national pride through the exploration of the nation’s glorious past amidst the humiliating political developments that was the cession of Finland. Furthermore, Erik Geijer’s poem “Manhem” urged readers to “relive the ancient examples of honour, strength and faith [so that] we will be revenged.” Despite having a profound influence on identity in Scandinavia at the time, the lack of historical objectivity must be acknowledged in these interpretations of history and their presentation to the public. The purpose of these literary movements was reigniting Scandinavian identity tropes. Therefore, the historical content was exclusively patriotic, nationalistic, and proud, accentuating only the desirable facts, and ignoring problematic information.
Over time, the true history of Vikings has often been glorified and even neglected to align Scandinavian countries with a national identity that is desirable and subjective. The earliest history of the Vikings was written by their enemies, enemies who Vikings had pillaged, murdered, and attacked. The most famous of these early records was the Viking raid on Lindisfarne[15] in 793 by the Anglo-Saxon monk Alcuin in a letter to Ethelred of Northumbria. This history, written by the victims, has been famously neglected when encumbering the Nordic past. Alcuin states:
We and our fathers have now lived in their fair land for nearly three hundred and fifty years, and never before has such an atrocity been seen in Britain as we have now suffered at the hands of a pagan people… the church of St Cuthbert is spattered with the blood of the priests of God, stripped of all its furnishings, exposed to the plundering of the pagans.
Despite the historical records, the raid on Lindisfarne is an often appropriated and neglected event when educating Scandinavians on the history of the Vikings. It is highly apparent in Scandinavian education and historical presentation that historical events are fabricated to only teach the desired aspects of the past, creating an inauthentic wholistic identity. Furthermore, Scandinavians have, to a very large extent, glorified the past through their admiration of violence. The earliest and most familiar names in Scandinavian history are Ivar the Boneless, Bjorn Ironside, Ragnar Lodbrok, all of whom are idolised in modern society for their violent actions, with no acknowledgement of a ‘human personality.’ Similarly, the historical essence of major battles and their details have been heavily fabricated in modern society. An excellent example is the neglection of Viking weaponry in modern art and film. In the Saga of the Jomsvikings, a description of a sea-battle outlines the weapon of choice of the early Scandinavian was the humble stone, not the glorious and costly sword or spear. Furthermore, during the battle, even in life-or-death situations, ships would return to shore to stock up on stones. “Almost as though a whistle has been blown for half time, combatants stop and remove some of their outer garments, because all that heavy clothing in the heat of the day has made the fighting uncomfortable.” Modern Scandinavian historians have neglected countless historical facts as they glorify only the desirable aspects of Nordic history that they want to shape their national identity, resulting in an inauthentic construction of history.
Nordic myth is a crucial part of the social, cultural, and political spheres of Scandinavian society. The very essence of their identity has been constructed over time through the interpretations of the Eddas and sagas, skaldic verse, and the glorious past of the Vikings. Despite its influence, many of the sources and interpretations around these texts prove either unreliable in their perception, objectivity, or negligence, giving rise to the notion that ideals of the Nordic past have been fabricated, ignored, or appropriated. However, this is not to discredit the entirety of Nordic historiography, but it must be concluded that concepts of Scandinavian identity sought in the glorious past are not entirely accurate. That they want to shape their national identity, resulting in an inauthentic construction of history.
[1] American folklorist (1904-1988)
[2] Collection of sagas about Swedish and Norwegian kings by Snorri Sturluson.
[3] Old Norse king’s saga relating to the history of Norwegian kings.
[4] Relating to the ancient Greeks and Romans
[5] An aesthetic attitude based on the art of Greece and Rome in antiquity, which invokes harmony, clarity, restraint, universality, and idealism.
[6] A movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual.
[7] The story and legacy of the Norse god Balder’s death, who was killed by the blind god Hod, who was deceived by Loki and killed Balder by hurling mistletoe.
[8] Danish professor of history (1760-1792)
[9] The Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman empire and the emergence of medieval Europe.
[10] At the time a unitary absolute monarchy, a great land power.
[11] On the verge of a unified republic, increasing its power through the exploitation of natural resources and industrialisation.
[12] Series of wars that ranged France against shifting alliances of European powers.
[13] The Treaty of Kiel, Denmark gave up all its rights to Norway to the king of Sweden.
[14] A national trauma following Finland ceding to the Russian Empire.
[15] Just off the Northumbrian coast.